Chalcogens for high-energy batteries

Rapid developments in electric vehicles and portable electronic devices have fuelled demand for high-energy batteries. Along these lines, chalcogen-driven static conversion batteries (CSCBs), which operate by multielectron transfer, are attracting attention from academia and industry. Because of their high capacity and high voltage output, CSCBs are promising for efficient energy-storage applications. This Review surveys efforts to implement chalcogens with multivalent conversion as the high-energy redox-active component in various rechargeable batteries. First, we examine the evolution of CSCBs and summarize the merits and limitations of these batteries. Subsequently, we discuss state-of-the-art redox mechanisms, approaches for multivalent conversion activation, problems faced in using CSCBs and strategies for enhancing their performance. We also describe the potential of using chalcogens with multivalent conversion chemistry for halogen fixation in reversible multistage processes. Finally, we cover the challenges associated with the design of high-performance CSCBs and provide guidelines for their future design.