Investigating carbon footprint and carbon reduction potential using a cradle-to-cradle LCA approach on lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles in China

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) is one of the core components of electric vehicles (EVs), and its ecological impacts are significant for the sustainable development of EVs. In this study, the carbon footprint of LIBs produced in China is investigated using a cradle-to-cradle life-cycle assessment approach. The results can be summarized as follows: (1) The carbon emission from battery production is 91.21 kg CO₂-eq/kWh, in which the cathode production and battery assembly process are the main sources of carbon emissions; (2) The carbon emission during the battery use phase under China's electricity mix which is dominated by thermal power in 2020 is 154.1 kg CO₂-eq/kWh; (3) Hydrometallurgy is the battery recycling method with the lowest carbon emission, and direct physical recycling method has attractive carbon reduction potential. (4) The carbon emission of battery remanufacturing through recycled materials is 51.8% lower than that of battery production with raw materials. Under the future electricity mix, the carbon emissions of battery production in 2050 and 2060 will be reduced by 75% and 84.9%, respectively. The short-term carbon reduction measure is battery recycling, and the long-term carbon reduction measure is the greening of electricity.